The PROTECT IP Act, also known as PIPA, was a legislative proposal aimed at combatting the proliferation of online piracy and the sale of counterfeit goods on websites, particularly those registered outside the United States. Introduced in May 2011 by Senator Patrick Leahy and supported by a group of bipartisan co-sponsors, this bill intended to empower the US government and copyright holders with additional mechanisms to obstruct access to websites engaged in the illegal distribution of copyrighted materials. The law was crafted as a successor to the COICA bill, which did not garner sufficient support in the previous year, and it shared similarities with the SOPA bill that appeared in the House of Representatives. PIPA outlined the definition of infringement broadly to include the distribution of illegal copies, counterfeit goods, or technology that circumvents digital rights management. It clarified, however, that it would not change the fundamental laws concerning trademark or copyright. Under the provisions of PIPA, the US Department of Justice would be authorized to take legal action against these "rogue" websites by obtaining court orders if the site owners could not be located after a thorough investigation. This would entail measures to prevent access and the flow of money to these entities. The enactment of PIPA promised significant financial implications, with the Congressional Budget Office estimating the cost to the federal government at $47 million by 2016. This amount would be allocated for the enforcement of the bill, including the recruitment and training of new agents and support staff. Despite the bill passing through the Senate Judiciary Committee, it faced opposition from legislators such as Senator Ron Wyden, who halted its progress. Moreover, substantial online protests in early 2012 spotlighted the controversy surrounding the bill, leading to the postponement of a Senate vote as concerns about the proposed measures were deliberated. Ultimately, the goals of PIPA reflected a desire to strengthen the hand of law enforcement in protecting intellectual property rights online but raised serious questions about the balance between enforcement and the freedom of the internet, leading to significant public

Protecting computer systems and networks from hostile intrusion has become vital in a world increasingly reliant on technology. Cybersecurity encompasses a range of strategies to guard against unauthorized access, theft, or damage to computers, their components, and the vast cache of data they handle. In this age of connectivity, such security measures extend beyond traditional PCs to encompass smartphones, smart TVs, and devices connected through the Internet of Things (IoT), all of which are potential targets for cybercriminals. The significance of cybersecurity cannot be overstated, especially when considering systems tied to critical infrastructure, financial networks, or establishments maintaining public wellbeing, such as those that manage energy distribution or electoral processes. Even so, physical deterrents, like metal locks, maintain a role alongside high-tech defenses like encryption to prevent direct interference with hardware. In cybersecurity, a vulnerability is a technical defect, whether in design, execution, or internal control, that can be exploited to breach security protocols. The majority of known vulnerabilities are cataloged in the Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures (CVE) database. Of particular concern are exploitable vulnerabilities, for which functional hacking methods are documented. Cybersecurity professionals use a combination of techniques, including automated tools and tailored software, to probe for weaknesses, uncover them, and ultimately, to defend against them. It's crucial to note that while everyone is susceptible to cyber attacks, certain groups may face specific threats more frequently than others. Recognizing this, authorities in the United Kingdom, through the Department for Science, Innovation & Technology, issued a report in April 2023 discussing the landscape of cyber attacks, signifying a continued emphasis on addressing the complex challenges of digital security.

White-collar crime is a term for financial crimes committed without violence, typically by those of higher social status for their own enrichment. Sociologists like Edwin Sutherland, who coined the term in 1939, describe these offenders as respectable individuals abusing their professional roles. Common forms of this crime include embezzlement, fraud, and money laundering, and it often happens within corporate settings. Criminologists categorize these crimes based on the nature of the offense or the characteristics of the offender, such as their social class or position of trust. For instance, something like international money laundering requires individuals in high-level banking positions to carry out. Although the complete impact of white-collar crime is not entirely measured, the FBI and financial experts estimate that it costs the United States between $300 and $660 billion annually. The FBI focuses on deceptive acts done without threats of violence, while researchers try to understand the motivations behind these crimes, such as greed or the fear of being exposed for financial struggles.